Eskimo

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Eskimos or Esquimaux are aboriginal people who inhabit the circumpolar region, excluding Scandinavia and most of Russia, but including the easternmost portions of Siberia. The two main groups of Eskimos are the Inuit of northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland, and the Yupik, comprising speakers of four distinct Yupik languages and originating in western Alaska, in southcentral Alaska along the Gulf of Alaska coast, and in the Russian Far East.

The term Eskimo has fallen out of favour in Canada and Greenland, where it is considered pejorative (see below) and the term Inuit has become more common. However, Eskimo is still considered acceptable among Alaska Natives of Yupik and Inupiaq (Inuit) heritage, and is preferred over Inuit as a collective reference. To date, no replacement term for Eskimo inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people has achieved acceptance across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.

The Inuit and Yupik peoples are related to the Aleuts from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. The Eskimo languages, together with the Aleut language, comprise the Eskimo-Aleut language group.

Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum, or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalaska and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east all the way to Greenland. Speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another.<ref name="kaplanB">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2001-12-10). "Comparative Yupik and Inuit". Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> The four Yupik languages, including Aluutiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik are distinct languages with limited mutual intelligibility. While grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically, and differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any of one of the Yupik languages is greater than between any two Yupik languages.<ref name="kaplanB"/>

The Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.<ref name="kaplanB"/>

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"Eskimo" and alternative terms

The term Eskimo is broadly inclusive of the two major groups, the Inuit — including the Kalaallit (Greenlanders) of Greenland, Inuit and Inuvialuit of Canada, and Inupiat of northern Alaska — and the Yupik peoples — the Naukan of Siberia, the Siberian Yupik of Siberia in Russia and St. Lawrence Island in Alaska, the Yup'ik of Alaska, and the Alutiiq (Sug'piak or Pacific Eskimo) of southcentral Alaska.

In Canada and Greenland, Eskimo is widely considered pejorative and offensive, and has been replaced overall by Inuit. The preferred term in Canada's Central Arctic is Inuinnait, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit. The language is often called Inuktitut, though other local designations are also used. The Inuit of Greenland refer to themselves as Greenlanders or, in their own language, Kalaallit, and to their language as Greenlandic or Kalaallisut.<ref name="kaplan">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2002). "Inuit or Eskimo: Which names to use?". Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref>

Because of the linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences between Yupik and Inuit languages and peoples, there is still uncertainty as to what term encompassing all Yupik and Inuit people will be acceptable to all. There has been some movement to use Inuit as a term encompassing all peoples formerly described as Eskimo, Inuit and Yupik alike. The Inuit Circumpolar Conference, representing a circumpolar population of 150,000 Inuit and Yupik people of Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and Siberia, defines Inuit in its charter as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)."<ref name="ICCcharter">Inuit Circumpolar Conference. (2006). "Charter." Inuit Circumpolar Conference (Canada). Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> Strictly speaking, however, Inuit refers only to the Inupiat of northern Alaska, the Inuit of Canada, and the Kalaallit of Greenland, but not to the Yupik peoples or languages of Alaska and Siberia. This is because the Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inupiaq and other Inuit languages, and the peoples are ethnically and culturally distinct as well. The word Inuit does not occur in the Yupik languages of Alaska and Siberia.<ref name="kaplan"/>

Thus, in Alaska, Eskimo continues to be acceptable, and is the preferred term when speaking collectively of all Inupiaq and Yupik people, or of all Inuit and Yupik people of the world.<ref name="kaplan"/> Alaskans also use the term Alaska Natives, though this term is also inclusive of Aleut and Indians people of Alaska, and is of course exclusive of Inuit or Yupik people originating outside the state. The term has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971.

The term "Eskimo" is also used in some linguistic or ethnographic works to denote the larger branch of Eskimo-Aleut languages, the smaller branch being Aleut. In this usage, Inuit (together with Yupik, and possibly also Sireniki), are sub-branches of the Eskimo language family. See details in articles Eskimo and Eskimo-Aleut languages.

Origin of the term Eskimo

Some Algonquian languages call Eskimos by names that mean "eaters of raw meat" or something that sounds similar. The Plains Ojibwe, for example, use the word êškipot ("one who eats raw," from ašk-, "raw," and -po-, "to eat") to refer to Eskimos. It is entirely possible that the Ojibwe have adopted words resembling "Eskimo" by borrowing them from French, and the French word merely sounds like Ojibwe words that can be interpreted as "eaters of raw meat".

But in the period of the earliest attested French use of the word, the Plains Ojibwe were not in contact with Europeans, nor did they have very much direct contact with the Inuit in pre-colonial times.

The Innu-aimun (Montagnais) language, a dialect of Cree which was known to French traders at the time of the earliest attestation of esquimaux, does not have vocabulary fitting this etymological analysis. Furthermore, since Cree people also traditionally consumed raw meat, a pejorative significance based on this etymology seems unlikely. A variety of competing etymologies have been proposed over the years, but the most likely source is the Montagnais word meaning "snowshoe-netter". The word assime·w means "she laces a snowshoe" in Montagnais. Since Montagnais speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound very much like eskimo, many researchers have concluded that this is the more likely origin of the word.<ref name="mailhot">Mailhot, J. (1978). "L'étymologie de «Esquimau» revue et corrigée." Etudes Inuit/Inuit Studies 2-2:59-70.</ref><ref name="goddard">Goddard, Ives (1984). "Synonymy." In Arctic, ed. David Damas. Vol. 5 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant, pp. 5-7. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Cited in Campbell 1997</ref><ref name="campbell">Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America, pg. 394. New York: Oxford University Press</ref>

The anthropologist Thomas Huxley in On the Methods and Results of Ethnology (1865) defined the "Esquimaux race" to be the indigenous peoples in the Arctic region of northern Canada and Alaska. He described them to "certainly present a new stock" (different from the other indigenous peoples of North America). He described them to have straight black hair, dull skin complexion, short and squat, with high cheek bones and long skulls.

Inuit

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An Inuit family
An Inuit family

The Inuit inhabit the Arctic and Bering Sea coasts of Siberia and Alaska and Arctic coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, Labrador, and Greenland. Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, sea mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, tools, and shelter.

Canada's Inuit

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Canadian Inuit live primarily in Nunavut (a territory of Canada), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec) and in Nunatsiavut (the Inuit settlement region in Labrador).

Inupiat

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The Inupiat or Inupiaq people are the Inuit people of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula. Barrow, the northernmost city in the United States, is in the Inupiaq region. Their language is known as Inupiaq.

Inuvialuit

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The Inuvialuit live in the western Canadian Arctic region. They are descendants of the Thule people, of which other descendants inhabit Russia and parts of Scandinavia. Their homeland - the Inuvialuit Settlement Region - covers the Arctic Ocean coastline area from the Alaskan border east to Amundsen Gulf and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands. The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement.

Kalaallit

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The Kalaallit live in Greenland, which is called Kalaallit Nunaat in Kalaallisut.

Yupik

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The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River (Central Alaskan Yup'ik), in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq) and in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik).

Alutiiq

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The Alutiiq also called Pacific Yupik or Sugpiaq, are a southern, coastal branch of Yupik. They are not to be confused with the Aleuts, who live further to the southwest, including along the Aleutian Islands. They traditionally lived a coastal lifestyle, subsisting primarily on ocean resources such as salmon, halibut, and whale, as well as rich land resources such as berries and land mammals. Alutiiq people today live in coastal fishing communities, where they work in all aspects of the modern economy, while also maintaining the cultural value of subsistence. The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area, but is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island, and the Chugach dialect, is spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound. Residents of Nanwalek, located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia, speak what they call Sugpiaq and are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the mere hundreds, Alutiiq communities are currently in the process of revitalizing their language.

Central Alaskan Yup'ik

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Yup'ik, with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to the north side of Bristol Bay, on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and on Nelson Island. The use of the apostrophe in the name Yup'ik denotes a longer pronunciation of the p sound than found in Siberian Yupik. Of all the Alaska Native languages, Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking the language. There are five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, including General Central Yup'ik and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, Nunivak, dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called Cup'ik.<ref name="centralyup'ik">Alaska Native Language Center. (2001-12-07). "Central Alaskan Yup'ik." Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Anchorage. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref>

Siberian Yupik (Yuit)

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Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East<ref name="kaplanB"/> and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska.<ref name="siberianyupik">Alaska Native Language Center. (2001-12-07). "Siberian Yupik." Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Anchorage. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska still speak the language, and it is still the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children.<ref name="siberianyupik"/>

Naukan

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About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak the Naukanski. The Naukan originate on the the Chukot Peninsula in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in Siberia.<ref name="kaplanB"/>

Languages

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Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum, or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalaska and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east all the way to Greenland. Changes from western (Inupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., kumlu, meaning "thumb," changes to kuvlu, changes to kullu), and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another.<ref name="kaplanB">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2001-12-10). "Comparative Yupik and Inuit". Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref>

The four Yupik languages, including Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences, and demonstrating limited mutual intelligibility. Additionally, both Alutiiq Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages — Siberian Yupik and Naukanski Yupik — are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically, and differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any of one of the Yupik languages is greater than between any two Yupik languages.<ref name="kaplanB"/>

The Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.<ref name="kaplanB"/>

An overview of the Eskimo-Aleut languages family is given below:

Aleut
Aleut language
Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60-80 speakers)
Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers)
Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit)
Central Alaskan Yup'ik (10,000 speakers)
Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers)
Central Siberian Yupik or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1400 speakers)
Naukan (70 speakers)
Inuit or Inupik (75,000 speakers)
Iñupiaq (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers)
Inuvialuktun or Inuktun (western Canada; 765 speakers)
Inuktitut (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and Inuinnaqtun, 30,000 speakers)
Kalaallisut (Greenland, 47,000 speakers)
Sirenik (extinct)

Certain relatedness of Eskimo cultures, far from homogeneity

Eskimo groups comprise a huge area stretching from Eastern Siberia through Alaska and Northern Canada (including Labrador Peninsula) to Greenland.

There is a certain relatedness in the cultures of the Eskimo groups<ref>Kleivan 1985:8</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965:366 (ch. XXIII)</ref><ref>Rasmussen 1965:166 (ch. XIII)</ref><ref name=padlgreen>Rasmussen 1965:110 (ch. VIII)</ref><ref name=Mau-Mor>Mauss 1979</ref> together with diversity, far from homogeneity.<ref>Kleivan 1985:26</ref>

Let us see some examples from shamanism among Eskimo peoples. The Russian linguist Меновщиков, an expert of Siberian Yupik and Sireniki languages (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:433</ref>) witnesses, that the shamanistic seances of those Siberian Yupik and Sireniki groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by Nansen,<ref>Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:442</ref> although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. Similar remarks apply for comparisons of Asiatic with North American Eskimo shamanisms.<ref>Vitebsky 1996:42 (ch. North America)</ref> Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups (including Asian ones<ref>Rubcova 1954:128</ref>), used mostly for talking to spirits.<ref>Merkur 1985:7</ref><ref>Kleivan & Sonne 1985:14</ref>

Similar remarks apply for aspects of the belief system not directly linked to shamanism:

Now let us see some examples illustrating the diversity:

Tupilak

Such distant groups like Caribou Eskimos, Greenland Eskimos, Igluliks knew the concept of tupilak. <ref>Kleivan&Sonne, p. 22–23.</ref> But the details differed:

Iglulik
The tupilak was an invisible ghost. Only the shaman could notice it. It was the soul of a dead, which became restless because the breach of some death taboo. It scared game away from the vicinity. Thus, the shaman had to help by scaring it away with a knife.<ref name=tupilak>Kleivan&Sonne, p. 23</ref>
Caribou Eskimo
The tupilak was also an invisible being. Like at Iglulik, also the shaman was the only one who could see it. It was a chimera-like creature, with human head and parts from different species of animals. It was dangerous, it might attack the settlement. Then, the shaman had to combat it and devour it with his/her helping spirits.<ref name=tupilak/>
Greenland
The tupilak was manifested in real, human-made object. It was made by people to the detriment of their enemies. It was a puppet-like thing, but was thought of have magical power onto the victim. It might be made e.g. of mixtured parts of dead animals, dead child.<ref name=tupilak/>

Name-soul

E.g. at Caribou Eskimos (but similar things were much more widespread), the "own" soul, "personal" soul of the newborn child was so weak, that it needed a guardianship of a more experienced soul. A naming ritual associated the "name" of a recently dead relative to the child. This name-soul took the guardianship over the child. This lead to a gentle behavior towards the child: if the child spoke, he/she spoke with the wisdom of the dead relative.<ref>Gabus 1970, p. 212</ref> Pryde also adds that the associating the name of the dead to a child was a necessity, so that the ghost of the dead do not turn into a restless being. At Perry Island, at least a newborn dog had to bear the name of the dead! If they forgot complely about this, it could result later in heavy illness.<ref name>Pryde 1976, 123</ref>

Now the main point comes: this notion of name-soul can amount to a reincarnation-like thought. The dead comes alive in the body of the soul at Caribou Eskimos. At other groups, it is only a guardianship. (But in both cases, the parents treat the child in a gentle way.)<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 19</ref>

The child in the air

Naarsuk is often thought to be associated to weather (storms). Beyond this generality, also he shows several local variations<ref>Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 31–32</ref>:

Copper Eskimo and Netsilik
He was a giant baby, his parents were giants. They had died in a battle between giants. In this battle also people were involved. Naarsuk felt avenge towards people, went to heavens. It is his loosened diaper that makes rain and wind. And the shaman has to tie it tight again.
Iglulik
He decided not by himself to plague people. It was Sea Woman and Moon Man who let him loose if they wanted to punish people for transgression of taboo.
East Greenland
Also here, people imagined spirits in the air and tried to scare them away by stabbing with knife in the snowy or stormy air. They also imagined the child in the air. The child was married to another mythological being, Asiaq, who had stolen this baby intentionally to marry him. Asiaq lived in the heaven. She could make rain. If people wanted rain, the shaman travelled to Asiaq and asked her for rain.

Trivia

  • On Alaska Airlines aircraft, an Eskimo is prominently displayed on the tail.

Myths and misconceptions

  • "They live in igloos." Some groups used to build igloos as temporary or semi-permanent shelters, but very few use even the temporary units any more.
  • "They have thousands of words for snow." See Eskimo words for snow.
  • Many cartoons and illustrations show Eskimos and penguins inhabiting the same landscape. In reality, there are no penguins in any area inhabited by the Inuit or Yupik.

See also


External links

Retrieved from "http://nativewiki.org/Eskimo"
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